Timothy Richard, a missionary of Baptists, translated Zhen Di’s Chinese translation sutra Da Chen Qi Xin Lun into English in 1894 and this version was published in 1907 by the Christian Literature Society. Following the first version by Suzuki, this full version elicited little attention. This paper, based on primary historical files, discusses how the book’s author, its content and the concept Zhen Ru were reconstructed under Ricard’s Theology. It discovers that, inspired by Beal’s Pseudo-Christian interpretation, Richard found Righteousness in the union of world religions from this book. This Righteousness is essentially what is needed in the building of the Kingdom of God. In his translation, he reconstructed Zhen Ru in the name of God and brought a totally new book to readers. His translation is the preparation for the building of the incoming Kingdom of God.

This essay proposes complexity and computational network analysis as fitting paradigm and methodology for studying contemporary literary translators’ agency. Grounded in the rhizomatic structure of networks, this approach unearths the importance of translation-based literary barters for the robustness and stability of a translation sub-system, in our case the sub-system of contemporary poetry translation from American and Canadian English into Romanian. Using a mixed- method approach that combines close reading (qualitative analysis) and distant reading (quantitative analysis), the research shows that translators possess an essentially connective mind and that their own interests and network of personal connections are salient in starting and maintaining a substantial exchange of inter-cultural transfers in a transnational context. Complexity thinking provides the premises for demonstrating that translation is highly sensitive to its initial conditions of production, thus is reliant on translators, and the computational network analyses prove consequential for documenting the role of translators in initiating and carrying out literary translation projects.

After the failure of the 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform, Kang Youwei fled overseas under intense pursuit by the Qing authorities, continually seeking foreign military intervention to support his Royalist Movement (Qinwang Movement). In order to obtain British support, Kang, who lacked proficiency in English, traveled to London accompanied by his British interpreter, Chen Enrong (Claude Ley Kum). During Kang’s subsequent period of sojourn on the Coal Island, Chen remained briefly at his side before returning to Hong Kong. Existing scholarship has overlooked this “unusual” interpreter during Kang Youwei’s overseas exile. The absence of research on his role and motivations has prevented a proper understanding of his function within Kang’s overseas activities, leaving the historical traces surrounding him largely unexplored. With the emergence of new archival materials, however, this interpreter has begun to reappear from the shadows of history. Drawing primarily on telegrams and press reports preserved in the Hong Kong Public Records Office, the Hong Kong Public Libraries Digital Collections, and other open-access repositories, this article reconstructs the life of Chen and examines the multiple identities he embodied while serving at Kang’s side. It analyzes Chen’s motives for interpreting on Kang’s behalf as a representative for Ho Tung. By interrogating the role of this interpreter, the study unearths the divergent agendas and conflicting stances held by the Hong Kong business community and exiled politicians during this British expedition. Ultimately, it seeks to draw scholarly attention to the often-overlooked interpreters accompanying Kang Youwei during his years in exile, thereby stimulating further academic inquiry into the multifaceted translation phenomena within the Royalist Movement.

Metaphor translation has been a matter of concern in translation studies because its interlinguistic transfer can be impeded by cross-cultural and crosslinguistic differences. Since the inception of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), which focuses on the conceptual structure of metaphorical language, a range of studies have emerged to investigate metaphor translation from a cognitive perspective, presenting an eclectic mix of research questions and methodologies. This paper is targeted at illustrating what the cognitive approach has offered to translation studies by providing a critical overview of recent research in metaphor translation from a cognitive perspective. It is pointed out that cognitive theory can get to the heart of metaphor, an essential cognitive device for meaning-making, as well as translation, a cognitive activity. Illustrations from the literature show that a cognitive approach can account for in-depth conceptual transfer in the analysis of product- and process-oriented metaphor translation. The cognitive approach also provides important insights into translation as cross- cultural communication by offering a redefinition of culture. Within this context, the paper provides multilingual illustrations while paying special attention to translation between culturally-distant languages, e.g., English-Chinese and French-Chinese translation. Lastly, it is argued that there is potential in combining cognitive theory with translation theories such as Descriptive Translation Studies and the Interpretive Theory of Translation.

Much has been written about the prominent British sinologists in the history of English translations of Chinese literature in the nineteenth century. It should be noted that the development of British sinology, including literary translation, in the nineteenth century was also marked by the active participation of a large number of foreign residents in China. Their contributions have not yet received sufficient attention. This paper examines the life and work of Alfred Lister (1842-1890) as a translator of Chinese literature who is still largely unnoticed. Since his arrival in Hong Kong in 1865, Lister had served in several offices in the colonial government, including Postmaster General and Treasurer. He had published actively in contemporary sinological journals, with a particular interest in translating Chinese literary works into English. With archival research and textual analysis, this paper examines his selection of source texts and his concepts and translation methods. It explores how the practice of literary translation had developed in the context of his colonial experience and the Chinese research environment in Hong Kong at the time. This paper brings new perspectives to our understanding of the history of English translations of Chinese literature in the nineteenth century.

In early twentieth-century Hong Kong, the rendition of medical terminology in the translated detective stories of Chinese-language periodicals reflected translation as a touchstone of the early exchanges between Western and Chinese medical culture. Among them, the literary translation Qi Wang Hui (1906) is a case in point. In the Chinese version, the Western terms for medical instruments, drugs and diseases, among others, were inconsistently translated. Some of the terms were translated literally, with the original meaning largely preserved, whereas some others were translated using words from Traditional Chinese Medicine. Others were translated as Chinese referents of more general concepts. The different strategies for dealing with the translation of various terms reflected the unbalanced recognition of Western medical knowledge and technology in the Chinese cultural context.

Translating animal agency poses evolving challenges and opportunities for more nuanced ethical attunements with animal subjects, especially in light of Anthropocene realities and the ongoing shift from anthropocentric to post-anthropocentric ways of understanding the world. Drawing on ecologically informed frameworks such as “eco-translation,” “ecolinguistics,” and “narrative ethology,” this study examines the portrayals of animal behaviors, social mores, and family values in Chinese translations of Ernest Thompson Seton's collection of animal stories Wild Animals I Have Known (1898). Focusing on the interplay of anthropomorphic projections and animal agency in the original and its translations, this study argues for an eco-translational approach to similar works, particularly within the genre of realistic animal stories. This approach refrains from fabricating pseudopersonhood for animals as mere automatized human cultural constructs. Instead, it seeks to analytically unveil pre-existing animal agency encoded in the source text or extrapolate it from the genre's ethos. The study concludes with the potential strategies that emphasize the importance of unveiling animal agency as an indispensable component of eco-translation.

The YouTube Shakespeare phenomenon has been addressed in several studies including those by Christy Desmet (2009, 2014) and Stephen O’Neill (2014, 2015). This paper builds on their work to examine closely the visual, aesthetic and aural strategies of a YouTube video that seeks to make Shakespeare’s As You Like It more accessible to a group of Bengali-speaking students in small town West Bengal, India. The paper examines (a) the means by which the video creator works to activate prior knowledge in his target viewers, (b) the consequent degree of cognitive success he appears to have achieved in terms of summary and explanation, and (c) this video not just as a teaching tool, but as a piece of creative remediation in its own right, and an original contribution to YouTube Shakespeare. The easy access to the visual dimensions of the global popular afforded by immersion in a digital environment both necessitates and enables more flexible and innovative approaches to bringing alive the sometimes archaic language in canonical literary texts, in this case, Shakespeare’s plays. The paper demonstrates how the video allows the creator to harness the capabilities of one of YouTube’s key pedagogical affordances: the digital image, in conjunction with the site’s potent play and gaming possibilities, as well as the sense of community in shared space that it fosters in regular users. The creator’s deployment of images is apparently idiosyncratic; but these images are culled from a wide variety of online loci that are particularly relevant, comprehensible, and attractive to the demographic he addresses. This strategy enables him to use the exciting possibilities of play, exploration, and cross-cultural connection to engage students effectively in a text recognized as challenging in the Indian context. A related broader argument made here pertains to the role of such digital videos in the shaping of the Global Shakespeare that scholars such as Alexa Huang have highlighted in the last decade. Teaching/explainer videos like the one analyzed in detail here, which combine the exoticism and excitement of globally sourced digital images and the youthful power of play with specific local references and an accessible vernacular voiceover can make a crucial contribution towards reshaping a new generation of glocal non-Anglophone iterations of Shakespeare.

While in-between knowledge has proved to be vital for the growth of translation studies, the actual and potential influence of translation theory on other disciplines has received little attention. Its contribution to digital humanities, for example, has been considered mostly in relation to the use of translation as a tool to disseminate knowledge at research events. Although in recent years digital humanities has shown increased interest in languages and linguistic diversity, its techno- linguistic foundations remain limited to English.
Translation supplies digital humanities with an interesting epistemo-methodological problem that challenges monocultural epistemologies in text computing. While distant reading in one language is relatively straightforward, computation across languages faces many challenges, including Anglophone bias, economies of scale, blackboxes, and lack of phenomenological depth. If we can solve these problems, disrupting monolingual practices in knowledge production would be one of many benefits of cross-linguistic computation.
In this paper, I will discuss the affordances of translation by drawing on my ongoing research, including the DRaL (Distant Reading across Languages) project which began with the concerns of how to make digital research epistemologies more inclusive of and more open to languages other than English.

At the turn of the twentieth century, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s work was regularly translated into Chinese despite the complexity of the medical terminology that permeates his work. This article considers how references in the Sherlock Holmes stories were rendered in translations published in 1916, thereby bridging the gap between Western and Chinese medical traditions. In particular, it considers how Western medical diagnoses and procedures were grafted onto existing concepts in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) through analysis of the translation methods used. It reflects on the need to make such medical references accessible to non-specialist readers in order to not impede their reading experience. By comparing early and later translations, the article assesses the extent to which Western medicine (WM) permeates Chinese culture at different points in twentieth century history.

This article intends to investigate how The Wizard of Oz was introduced, translated, and retranslated in China from the 1920s to the 1970s. Inspired by the historical archives mostly from Shenbao 申報, this paper firstly delineates the early acceptance of the Oz story by revealing how it was introduced, synopsized, and advertised in China between the 1920s and the 1940s. In this part, the novel’s early translation versions are investigated, with a particular focus on its title translation—“Lüye xianzong 綠野仙蹤,” to illustrate an initial acceptance of the novel as a story about gods and spirits. In the second part, as the sociopolitical context underwent major changes after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the translation of the novel was required to conform to the prevailing socialist realist tenets, and the novel was reinterpreted, retranslated, and reshaped as a piece of socialist realist children’s literature. This part concentrates on a comparative reading of Chen Bochui’s 陳伯吹 three translations (published sequentially in 1942-1943, 1953, and 1979). In investigating the translation history of The Wizard of Oz in China in the given period, this study suggests the nature of (re)translation as a complex process with multiple mediating forces.

This article re-contextualizes the historical developments of Chinese military interpreter training during the Second World War. Through the study of the Kunming- and Chongqing-based interpreting officer training programs in the 1940s, the entire training scheme is divided into three phases. Discussions of each phase revolve around key strands of education, including enrollment, curriculum, training methods, and faculty composition. It is argued that, despite some deficiencies, the wartime training practices actually marked the first developmental phase in translation and interpreting training in China in the twentieth century. They comprised large-scale curriculum-based institutional training practices, which, as a feature of twentieth-century Chinese translation history and education, merit further research. The program structure and curriculum design discussed in the article are of relevance to translation and interpreting education today, thus contributing to the understanding of interpreter/translator training and interpreting/translating during the second Sino-Japanese war.

This paper presents a case study of the English translation of Li Juan's 李娟 narrative nonfiction Dong Mu Chang 冬牧場. Through highlighting the translational and ethnographic characteristics of the original Chinese text, it posits that Li assumes the dual role of a translator and an ethnographer in her writing of Dong Mu Chang and that translating the book is essentially a meta-translational endeavor. Drawing upon the widely recognized narrative concept of the implied author, the paper makes a comparison between the English translation of Dong Mu Chang and its original Chinese version and has discovered that the English translation features an implied author with a more pronounced image of an ethnographer, a manifestation attributed to a succession of paratextual interventions that can be regarded as a strategic approach adopted by the translators to augment the ethnographic essence of the book. This study underscores the richness and complexity of Dong Mu Chang as a dynamic object of translation and reveals the potential challenges involved in translating narrative nonfiction with ethnographic characteristics, giving prominence to the narrative concept of the implied author. It establishes an epistemologically important case for narrative nonfiction translation research and hopefully offers implications for the practice of narrative nonfiction translation as well.

In 1952, Everyman’s Literature, a literary periodical, was established in Hong Kong. The present scholarship contends that the periodical was financially supported by the US, and the literary translations in the periodical were an inseparable part of the American translation scheme in the 1950s Hong Kong. In fact, Everyman’s Literature did not directly receive the financial support, therefore its translations were not political tools. Instead, the editor Huang Sicheng brilliantly orchestrated the translations to show and promote his literary ideas. Referring to the sources that have been barely broached, this article scrutinizes Huang’s reading history, explores his acquisition of the knowledge of literature, and further discusses the impact of his knowledge system on the choice of the translated texts in Everyman’s Literature. With the perspective of reading history, the paper hopes to open up a new analytical path for the study on the mainland literati in Hong Kong.

Examining late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century English translation anthologies of classical Chinese poetry by two British sinologists, Herbert Allen Giles and W. J. B. Fletcher, this article explores the translation anthology as a crucial medium for the translator to theorize through practice and a cultural form that enables the translation scholar to anchor theorization in historically constituted practices. The anthologies selected for discussion are single-translator anthologies made by sinologists, where the translator of the poems doubles as the editor of the anthology. Special attention is paid to how the translator-anthologist creates various features within the anthology space through a range of techniques: the use of figurative language that presents the Chinese poems as “gems,” the selection and arrangement of anthology pieces, page layout, retitling, versification, and the interplay between translation and paratextual materials like annotations. This article aims to unpack the making of translation anthologies as complex microcosms of the translation field by reading these features and techniques as acts of discursive engagement, whereby the translator-anthologist mediates multiple forms of knowledge and value, formulates new methods and poetics of translation, and enters into intertextual dialogues with other approaches.

During the Cold War, Hong Kong occupied a pivotal role as a bridge between the Free World and the Communist World, making it crucial for the United States (U.S.) to counter the spread of communist ideologies. Literary translation emerged as a significant avenue for advancing U.S. foreign-policy objectives by winning over the hearts and minds of audiences worldwide. Consequently, the prevalence of U.S.- commissioned literary translations in Hong Kong became a crucial aspect of Cold War dynamics. Existing scholarly research has primarily focused on the financial support provided by the U.S. to intellectuals involved in literary translations, while overlooking the nuanced perspectives and attitudes of these intellectuals toward such funding. This paper seeks to address this gap by examining the attitudes and reactions of local intellectuals towards financial assistance from the U.S., using Platitude Press (Renren chubanshe 人人出版社) as a case study. It argues that the relationship between the U.S. and local intellectuals during the Cold War era was not one-sided but rather interactive, leading to a more complex and multifaceted history of Cold War activities in Hong Kong.

During the brief period of “Adjustment” in the first half of the 1960s, China undertook the project of translating and compiling a series of liberal arts textbooks and reference books for higher education, achieving great success in this respect. In terms of general planning and book selection, the project followed the ideas of educational specialization, independent thinking, and ideological engagement. In the process of compiling and translating, the project took advantage of concerted efforts nationwide, enabled an interaction between translation and original research, helped create an atmosphere of scholarship, fostered young talents with international vision, and temporarily spared senior scholars from radical educational reform. However, due to the limitations of the “Adjustment” policy, it was still hampered by the “Great Leap Forward” mentality and politicized research method. Toward the end of this period, the compilation and translation work gradually declined, only to be restarted after 1978.

Zhou Zuoren insisted on the right to choose the texts to be translated. However, the external influence cannot be neglected. Taking Zhou Zuoren’s translations in the The Short Story Magazine as an example, on one hand, his translation concepts profoundly influenced the editors of the magazine; on the other hand, Mao Dun and others also consciously made use of the influence of the Zhou brothers’ previous translations. Although they cooperated with each other in most cases, when it came to the choice and interpretation of a particular article, the struggles between Zhou Zuoren’s own interest and the magazine’s line were visible.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the imagined community created when student translators envisage a target reader for whom they are translating and to highlight pedagogical implications for developing awareness of language and culture in the second language (L2) classroom context. As mediators between source and target culture, language learners dealing with translation, i.e., translation studies students who are also L2 learners of at least one of the languages in the language pair, may also have a role in an imagined community—they have an imagined or implied target reader for whom they are translating, and serve their roles as communicators between the imagined source and target communities. They make connections and fill in the gaps that may be found during the translation of a text from one language and culture to another.
This paper looks at the student contemplations during the process of translation in an imagined community they may imagine themselves to be in. Five Korean into English translation classes were offered to students at a university in Seoul, South Korea. Presenting qualitative excerpts from the data, this paper discusses the imagined community painted by the learners during their process of translation, and how they negotiate the identities of the target audience members with whom they are aiming to communicate.

Lefevere defines patronage as a force that may promote or hinder the reading, creation and rewriting of works, with a highlight that patronage is mostly a promoting rather than hindering force. As such, researchers on patronage of persons and institutions have predominantly focused on the former with a practical exclusion of the latter. This article, by putting the English translations of the sexual descriptions in Jin Ping Mei under scrutiny, attempts to tease out literary censorship’s dual patronage function of both hindering and promoting the production, publication, circulation and reception of the relevant texts. Despite the seeming ambivalence, the concurrence of the two opposite functions in the same patron actually reveals the hierarchical, dynamic and interactive nature of the patronage system.

A word-cloud is a visual representation of text data in which the importance of each word is shown with different point size or color. Word-cloud generators rearrange the content of a given text in free form, emphasizing its most recurring lexical elements, thus promoting an immediate understanding of the text’s main focal points. This tool proves particularly useful when applied to the study of translations: when building upon relatively large numbers of short texts (such as the different renditions of a single piece of poetry), word-clouds can highlight translation idiosyncrasies, reveal convergences and divergences in interpretation, and point back at potentially problematic junctures in the source text. Furthermore, word-clouds can also be considered as texts in themselves, or “meta-translations”: by disrupting the syntactic construction of a text and rearranging its content according to criteria of identity and repetition, word-clouds promote complementary ways of reading that break away from the linearity of writing. Overall, word-clouds provide a useful tool for the reverse- engineering of a source text’s problematics from the raw material given in the translated text. Using Li Shangyin’s poem “Luohua” 落花 (Falling Flowers) and its different English translations as case study, this paper discusses the utility of word-clouds for implementing what Theo Hermans, building upon Appiah’s reflections, advocated as the critical practice of “thick translation.”

In 1886, Li Ruqian 黎汝謙 (1852-1909) and Cai Guozhao 蔡國昭 (dates unknown) translated Washington Irving’s renowned biography of George Washington (1732-1799), which appeared under the title Huashengdun quanzhuan 華盛頓全傳 (A Complete Biography of Washington). It was the first Chinese translation of a biography about George Washington. The translation proved to be a valuable source of information for Chinese readers in the nineteenth century, as it covered the American Revolutionary War and the founding of the Republic, providing insights into American history and politics.
Through the Li and Cai translation, this paper aims to explore how Chinese intellectuals understood and imagined the nature of a modern state during the late nineteenth century. The analysis will be contextualized through a discussion of sovereignty in the history of the interaction between China and Euro-American countries. As Qing China’s foreign relations differed from the Westphalian system of sovereignty featured by the Western “family of nations,” the concept of sovereignty was understood inconsistently. In their interpretation of Western forms of sovereignty, the Chinese translators employed terms such as zizhu 自主 (self-governance), junzhu 君主 (absolute monarchy), minzhu 民主 (republic), and yihui 議會 (parliament), echoing what Henry Wheaton (1785-1848) referred to as “external sovereignty” and “internal sovereignty.” This paper will analyze these terms to uncover changing Chinese perceptions of sovereignty and evaluate their impact on how Chinese intellectuals envisioned a modern state.
The primary approach adopted in this analysis is back translation, which draws on Max Huang’s (2008) work and comparative close reading, enabling a nuanced examination of the differences and contingencies in the meanings of concepts between Western and Chinese contexts. Ultimately, this paper will contribute to our understanding of the political landscape as conceptualized by Chinese intellectuals before the peak of Japanese influence in the early twentieth century.

It is generally agreed that the translation of children’s literature is an under-researched area. With only three books focusing on the subject, even rarer is the research on children’s literature in China, and none of which dwells on the translation of American children’s literature in modern China, not to mention the research on the translation of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s children’s literature. Yet Hawthorne’s children’s literature enjoyed a wide circulation in Republican China (1912-1949), which even overshadowed the translation of his often-quoted classics. Based on André Lefevere’s rewriting theory, this article argues that the translation of Hawthorne’s children’s literature was initiated in late Qing when the dominant culture changed its view of children and the importance of children’s education. But it also benefited from ideological advocacy for child-orientation and from the poetic urgency for the establishment of children’s literature in China. The translation, supported by various forms of patronage, ushered in a period of prosperity in the May Fourth era and greatly affected the creation of children’s literature in China as an independent category. Then, confronted with the nationwide political agenda of the impending war, the translation of Hawthorne’s children’s literature lost its impetus beginning in the late 1930s, although there were some translations or retranslations of Hawthorne’s famous fairy tales sporadically in the 1940s.

Adopting the approach of conceptualizing translation with metaphors, this study metaphorizes the Macau News 澳門新聞紙 as the Qing Empire’s imperial gaze. The Macau News is a translation project initiated and organized by Lin Zexu 林則徐 , who was designated by the Daoguang Emperor 道光帝 as an imperial envoy to stem the tide of opium circulating in Canton in 1839. Lin conducted this project to learn about Britain for use in instituting countermeasures to the opium trade. In this process, Lin as well as the Qing government behind him started to look at the world seriously; for this reason, Lin was dubbed “the first person of modern China to gaze at the world.” Such a gaze relied largely on Lin’s translational and intercultural practices and may represent a general way of how the Qing looked at the foreign. To examine this looking relation, the Macau News as one of Lin’s translation projects is investigated with the aid of the existing scholarship of the gaze. Moreover, exemplified by the case study of the Macau News, the gaze is proven of potential to be integrated into translation studies.